FLT4

Gene Summary

Gene:FLT4; fms related tyrosine kinase 4
Aliases: PCL, FLT-4, FLT41, LMPH1A, LMPHM1, VEGFR3, VEGFR-3
Location:5q35.3
Summary:This gene encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor for vascular endothelial growth factors C and D. The protein is thought to be involved in lymphangiogenesis and maintenance of the lymphatic endothelium. Mutations in this gene cause hereditary lymphedema type IA. [provided by RefSeq, Jul 2008]
Databases:OMIM, HGNC, Ensembl, GeneCard, Gene
Protein:vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3
Source:NCBIAccessed: 01 September, 2019

Ontology:

What does this gene/protein do?
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Pathways:What pathways are this gene/protein implicaed in?
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Cancer Overview

Research Indicators

Publications Per Year (1994-2019)
Graph generated 01 September 2019 using data from PubMed using criteria.

Literature Analysis

Mouse over the terms for more detail; many indicate links which you can click for dedicated pages about the topic.

Tag cloud generated 01 September, 2019 using data from PubMed, MeSH and CancerIndex

Specific Cancers (6)

Data table showing topics related to specific cancers and associated disorders. Scope includes mutations and abnormal protein expression.

Note: list is not exhaustive. Number of papers are based on searches of PubMed (click on topic title for arbitrary criteria used).

Latest Publications: FLT4 (cancer-related)

Wang X, Hua Y, Xu G, et al.
Targeting EZH2 for glioma therapy with a novel nanoparticle-siRNA complex.
Int J Nanomedicine. 2019; 14:2637-2653 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Background: For the past few years, gene-therapy has recently shown considerable clinical benefit in cancer therapy, and the applications of gene therapies in cancer treatments continue to increase perennially. EZH2, an ideal candidate for tumor gene therapy, plays an important role in the tumorigenesis.
Methods: In this study, we developed a novel gene delivery system with a self-assembly method by Methoxy polyethylene glycol-polycaprolactone (MPEG-PCL) and DOTAP(DMC). And EZH2si-DMC was used to research anti-glioma both in vitro and in vivo.
Results: DMC with zeta-potential value of 36.7 mV and size of 35.6 nm showed good performance in the delivery siRNA to glioma cell in vitro with high 98% transfection efficiency. EZH2si-DMC showed good anti-glioma effect in vitro through inducing cell apoptosis and inhibiting cell growth. What's more, treatment of tumor-bearing mice with DMC-EZH2si complex had significantly inhibited tumor growth at the subcutaneous model in vivo by inhibiting EZH2 protein expression, promoting apoptosis and reducing proliferation.
Conclusion: The EZH2 siRNA and DMC complex may be used to treat the glioma in clinical as a new drug.

Shahi RB, De Brakeleer S, Caljon B, et al.
Identification of candidate cancer predisposing variants by performing whole-exome sequencing on index patients from BRCA1 and BRCA2-negative breast cancer families.
BMC Cancer. 2019; 19(1):313 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: In the majority of familial breast cancer (BC) families, the etiology of the disease remains unresolved. To identify missing BC heritability resulting from relatively rare variants (minor allele frequency ≤ 1%), we have performed whole exome sequencing followed by variant analysis in a virtual panel of 492 cancer-associated genes on BC patients from BRCA1 and BRCA2 negative families with elevated BC risk.
METHODS: BC patients from 54 BRCA1 and BRCA2-negative families with elevated BC risk and 120 matched controls were considered for germline DNA whole exome sequencing. Rare variants identified in the exome and in a virtual panel of cancer-associated genes [492 genes associated with different types of (hereditary) cancer] were compared between BC patients and controls. Nonsense, frame-shift indels and splice-site variants (strong protein-damaging variants, called PDAVs later on) observed in BC patients within the genes of the panel, which we estimated to possess the highest probability to predispose to BC, were further validated using an alternative sequencing procedure.
RESULTS: Exome- and cancer-associated gene panel-wide variant analysis show that there is no significant difference in the average number of rare variants found in BC patients compared to controls. However, the genes in the cancer-associated gene panel with nonsense variants were more than two-fold over-represented in women with BC and commonly involved in the DNA double-strand break repair process. Approximately 44% (24 of 54) of BC patients harbored 31 PDAVs, of which 11 were novel. These variants were found in genes associated with known or suspected BC predisposition (PALB2, BARD1, CHEK2, RAD51C and FANCA) or in predisposing genes linked to other cancer types but not well-studied in the context of familial BC (EXO1, RECQL4, CCNH, MUS81, TDP1, DCLRE1A, DCLRE1C, PDE11A and RINT1) and genes associated with different hereditary syndromes but not yet clearly associated with familial cancer syndromes (ABCC11, BBS10, CD96, CYP1A1, DHCR7, DNAH11, ESCO2, FLT4, HPS6, MYH8, NME8 and TTC8). Exome-wide, only a few genes appeared to be enriched for PDAVs in the familial BC patients compared to controls.
CONCLUSIONS: We have identified a series of novel candidate BC predisposition variants/genes. These variants/genes should be further investigated in larger cohorts/case-control studies. Other studies including co-segregation analyses in affected families, locus-specific loss of heterozygosity and functional studies should shed further light on their relevance for BC risk.

Dong Z, Huang K, Liao B, et al.
Prediction of sorafenib treatment-related gene expression for hepatocellular carcinoma: preoperative MRI and histopathological correlation.
Eur Radiol. 2019; 29(5):2272-2282 [PubMed] Related Publications
PURPOSE: To investigate the feasibility of prediction for targeted therapy-related gene expression in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) using preoperative gadoxetic acid-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ninety-one patients (81 men, mean age 53.9 ± 12 years) with solitary HCC who underwent preoperative enhanced MRI were retrospectively analyzed. Features including tumor size, signal homogeneity, tumor capsule, tumor margin, intratumoral vessels, peritumor enhancement, peritumor hypointensity, signal intensity ratio on DWI, T1 relaxation times, and the reduction rate between pre- and post-contrast enhancement images were assessed. The operation and histopathological evaluation were performed within 2 weeks after MRI examination (mean time 7 days). The expression levels of BRAF, RAF1, VEGFR2, and VEGFR3 were evaluated. The associations between these imaging features and gene expression levels were investigated.
RESULTS: Tumor incomplete capsules or non-capsules (p = 0.001) and intratumoral vessels (p = 0.002) were significantly associated with BRAF expression, and tumor incomplete capsules or non-capsules (p = 0.001) and intratumoral vessels (p = 0.013) with RAF1 expression. There was no significant association between the expression of VEGFR2, VEGFR3, and all examined MRI features. Multivariate logistic regression showed that incomplete tumor capsule (p = 0.002) and non-capsule (p = 0.004) were independent risk factors of HCC with high BRAF expression; incomplete tumor capsule (p < 0.001) and non-capsule (p = 0.040) were independent risk factors of HCC with high RAF1 expression.
CONCLUSION: The presence of incomplete capsule or intratumoral vessels and the absence of capsule are potential indicators of high BRAF and RAF1 expression. Gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI may facilitate the choice of gene therapy for patients with HCC.
KEY POINTS: • Incomplete tumor capsule and non-capsule were independent risk factors of HCC with high BRAF and RAF1 expression. • The presence of intratumoral vessels was a potential indicator of high BRAF and RAF1 expression. • Gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI may be a predictor of efficacy of treatment with sorafenib.

Noia G, Maltese PE, Zampino G, et al.
Cystic Hygroma: A Preliminary Genetic Study and a Short Review from the Literature.
Lymphat Res Biol. 2019; 17(1):30-39 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND: The objective of this study is to examine the hypothesis that cystic hygroma (CH) with normal karyotype can manifest as a Mendelian inherited trait, and that a genetic similitude with hereditary lymphedema exists. To reach this goal, we investigated the prevalence of genetic variants in angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis genes in a cohort of euploid fetuses with CH that almost resolved before delivery. A short review of cases from literature is also reported.
METHODS AND RESULTS: Five fetuses were screened using a next-generation sequencing approach by targeting 33 genes known to be associated with vascular and lymphatic malformations. The genetic evaluation revealed two novel variants in KDR and KRIT1 genes.
CONCLUSION: A review of the literature to date revealed that an association exists between CH and hereditary lymphedema and, similar to lymphedema, CH can be inherited in autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant manner, with the latter most likely associated with a better prognosis. About KDR and KRIT1 genes, no other similar associations are reported in the literature and caution is needed in their interpretation. In conclusion, we thought that a genetic test for the outcome of familial CH could be of enormous prognostic value.

Martini T, Heinkele J, Mayr R, et al.
Predictive value of lymphangiogenesis and proliferation markers on mRNA level in urothelial carcinoma of the bladder after radical cystectomy.
Urol Oncol. 2018; 36(12):530.e19-530.e27 [PubMed] Related Publications
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the mRNA expression of lymphangiogenesis and proliferation markers and to examine its association with histopathological characteristics and clinical outcome in patients with urothelial carcinoma of the bladder (UCB) after radical cystectomy (RC).
PATIENTS AND METHODS: Gene expression analysis of the vascular endothelial growth -C and -D (VEGF-C/-D), its receptor VEGF receptor-3 (VEGFR-3), MKI67, and RACGAP1 was performed in 108 patients after radical cystectomy and their correlation with clinical-pathological parameters was investigated. Uni- and multivariate regression analyses were used to identify predictors for cancer-specific survival (CSS), recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) after RC.
RESULTS: The expression of RACGAP1 and VEGFR-3 showed an association with a higher pT stage (P = 0.049; P = 0.009). MKI67 showed an association with a high-grade urothelial carcinoma of the bladder (P = 0.021). VEGFR-3 expression was significantly associated with the presence of lymphovascular invasion (LVI) (P = 0.016) and lymph node metastases (pN+) (P = 0.028). With the univariate analysis, overexpression of VEGFR-3 (P = 0.029) and the clinical-pathological parameters pT stage (P < 0.0001), pN+ (P = 0.0004), LVI (P < 0.0001) and female gender (P = 0.021) were significantly associated with a reduced CSS. Multivariate analysis identified a higher pT stage (P = 0.017) and LVI (P = 0.008) as independent predictors for reduced CSS. Independent predictors for reduced OS were a higher pT stage (P = 0.0007) and LVI (P = 0.0021), while overexpression of VEGF-D was associated with better OS (P < 0.0001).
CONCLUSIONS: The mRNA expression of the investigated markers showed associations with common histopathological parameters. Increased expression of VEGF-D is independently associated with better overall survival.

Zhou X, Xu L, Xu J, et al.
Construction of a High-Efficiency Drug and Gene Co-Delivery System for Cancer Therapy from a pH-Sensitive Supramolecular Inclusion between Oligoethylenimine- graft-β-cyclodextrin and Hyperbranched Polyglycerol Derivative.
ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018; 10(42):35812-35829 [PubMed] Related Publications
Introducing genes into drug-delivery system for a combined therapy has become a promising strategy for cancer treatment. However, improving the in vivo therapy effect resulted from the high delivery efficiency, low toxicity, and good stability in the blood remains a challenge. For this purpose, the supramolecular inclusion was considered to construct a high-efficiency drug and gene co-delivery system in this work. The oligoethylenimine-conjugated β-cyclodextrin (β-CD-PEI600) and benzimidazole-modified four-arm-polycaprolactone-initiated hyperbranched polyglycerol (PCL-HPG-BM) were synthesized as the host and guest molecules, respectively, and then the co-delivery carrier of PCL-HPG-PEI600 was formed from the pH-mediated inclusion interaction between β-CD and BM. PCL-HPG-PEI600 showed the improved drug (doxorubicin, DOX) and gene (MMP-9 shRNA plasmid, pMMP-9) delivery ability in vivo, and their cellular uptake and intracellular delivery were investigated. Particularly, PCL-HPG-PEI600 showed excellent pMMP-9 delivery ability with significantly higher transfection efficiency than PEI25k due to its excellent serum resistance. For the combined therapy to breast cancer MCF-7 tumor, the co-delivery system of PCL-HPG-PEI600/DOX/pMMP-9 resulted in a much better inhibition effect on MCF-7 cell proliferation and migration in vitro as well as the suppression effect on MCF-7 tumors in vivo compared to those of single DOX or pMMP-9 formulation used. Moreover, PCL-HPG-PEI600 displayed nontoxicity and excellent blood compatibility, suggesting a promising drug and gene co-delivery carrier in combined therapy to tumors.

Koh J, Nam SK, Roh H, et al.
Somatic mutational profiles of stage II and III gastric cancer according to tumor microenvironment immune type.
Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2019; 58(1):12-22 [PubMed] Related Publications
We aimed to determine somatic mutational profiles of stage II/III gastric cancers (GCs) according to their tumor microenvironment immune types (TMITs), which classify cancer based on co-assessment of PD-L1 expression and CD8

Balachander GM, Talukdar PM, Debnath M, et al.
Inflammatory Role of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Invasive Breast Tumors Revealed Using a Fibrous Polymer Scaffold.
ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018; 10(40):33814-33826 [PubMed] Related Publications
Inflammation in cancer fuels metastasis and worsens prognosis. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) present in the tumor stroma play a vital role in mediating the cascade of cancer inflammation that drives metastasis by enhancing angiogenesis, tissue remodeling, and invasion. In vitro models that faithfully recapitulate CAF-mediated inflammation independent of coculturing with cancer cells are nonexistent. We have engineered fibrous matrices of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) that can maintain the manifold tumor-promoting properties of patient-derived CAFs, which would otherwise require repetitive isolation and complex coculturing with cancer cells. On these fibrous matrices, CAFs proliferated and remodeled the extracellular matrix (ECM) in a parallel-patterned manner mimicking the ECM of high-grade breast tumors and induced stemness in breast cancer cells. The response of the fibroblasts was observed to be sensitive to the scaffold architecture and not the polymer composition. The CAFs cultured on fibrous matrices exhibited increased activation of the NF-κB pathway and downstream proinflammatory gene expression compared to CAFs cultured on conventional two-dimensional (2D) dishes and secreted higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, GM-CSF, and MIP-3α. Consistent with this, we observed increased infiltration of inflammatory cells to the tumor site and enhanced invasiveness of the tumor in vivo when tumor cells were injected admixed with CAFs grown on fibrous matrices. These data suggest that CAFs better retain their tumor-promoting proinflammatory properties on fibrous polymeric matrices, which could serve as a unique model to investigate the mechanisms of stroma-induced inflammation in cancer progression.

Tran HV, Kiemer AK, Helms V
Copy Number Alterations in Tumor Genomes Deleting Antineoplastic Drug Targets Partially Compensated by Complementary Amplifications.
Cancer Genomics Proteomics. 2018 Sep-Oct; 15(5):365-378 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND/AIM: Genomic DNA copy number alterations (CNAs) are frequent in tumors and have been catalogued by The Cancer Genome Atlas project. Emergence of chemoresistance frequently renders drug therapies ineffective.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analyzed how CNAs recurrently found in the genomes of TCGA patients of thirty-one tumor types affect protein targets of antineoplastic (AN) agents.
RESULTS: CNA deletions more frequently affected the targets of AN agents than CNA amplifications. Interestingly, in seven tumors we observed signs of compensatory CNAs. For example, in glioblastoma multiforme, two target genes (FLT1, FLT3) of the experimental drug sorafenib were recurrently deleted, whereas another target (KDR) of sorafenib was recurrently amplified. In renal clear cell carcinoma, the target FLT1 of pazopanib, sunitinib, sorafenib, and axitinib was recurrently deleted, whereas FLT4 bound by the same drugs, was recurrently amplified.
CONCLUSION: Deletions of AN target proteins can be compensated by amplification of alternative targets.

Parashar P, Tripathi CB, Arya M, et al.
A facile approach for fabricating CD44-targeted delivery of hyaluronic acid-functionalized PCL nanoparticles in urethane-induced lung cancer: Bcl-2, MMP-9, caspase-9, and BAX as potential markers.
Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2019; 9(1):37-52 [PubMed] Related Publications
Lung carcinoma ranks highest in cancer-related death (about 20% of total cancer deaths) due to poor prognosis and lack of efficient management therapy. Owing to the lack of effective therapeutic approaches, survival rate of less than 5 years persists over the years among non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Capsaicin (CAP) is well reported for its antiproliferative and antioxidant properties in various literature but lacks an appropriate delivery carrier. The present study was aimed to develop CAP-loaded hyaluronic acid (HA) nanoparticles (NPs) utilizing layer by layer technique to achieve enhanced and precise delivery as well as target specificity. The NPs were evaluated for in vitro release, particle size, zeta potential, and cytotoxicity on A549 cells. The optimized NPs exhibited a particle size of 194 ± 2.90 nm, - 27.87 ± 3.21 mV zeta potential, and 80.70 ± 4.29% release, respectively, over a period of 48 h. Flow cytometric analysis revealed superior performance of HA-PCL-CAP in terms of suppressed cell viability in A549 cell lines when compared with CAP and PCL-CAP. Further, HA-anchored NPs were evaluated in vivo for their therapeutic efficacy in urethane-induced lung carcinoma in rat model. The superlative therapeutic potential of HA-PCL-CAP was advocated from the results of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial membrane-mediated apoptosis. HA-PCL-CAP-administered groups presented greater therapeutic efficacy as revealed through reduced tumor volume and improved animal survival rate. A greater drug accumulation in tumor tissue as revealed from biodistribution studies evidences targeting potential of HA-PCL-CAP in urethane-induced lung carcinoma. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

De Martino L, Errico ME, Ruotolo S, et al.
Pediatric lung adenocarcinoma presenting with brain metastasis: a case report.
J Med Case Rep. 2018; 12(1):243 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Diagnosis and treatment of primary lung adenocarcinoma in children remains challenging given its rarity. Here we highlight the clinical history, pathological evaluation, genomic findings, and management of a very young patient with metastatic lung adenocarcinoma.
CASE PRESENTATION: A 10-year-old white girl presented with brain metastases due to primary pulmonary adenocarcinoma. Next generation sequencing analysis with "Comprehensive Cancer Panel" highlighted the presence of multiple non-targetable mutations in the FLT4, UBR5, ATM, TAF1, and GUCY1A2 genes. She was treated aggressively with chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy for local and distant recurrence. Eventually, therapy with nivolumab was started compassionately, and she died 23 months after diagnosis.
CONCLUSIONS: Extremely rare cancers in children such as lung adenocarcinoma need accurate and specific diagnosis in order to develop an optimal plan of treatment. It is also necessary to underline that "children are not little adults," thus implying that an adult-type cancer in the pediatric population might have a different etiopathogenesis. Diagnostic confirmation and primary treatment of such rare conditions should be centralized in reference centers, collaborative networks, or both, with multidisciplinary approaches and very specific expertise.

Zhang W, Hong R, Li L, et al.
The chromosome 11q13.3 amplification associated lymph node metastasis is driven by miR-548k through modulating tumor microenvironment.
Mol Cancer. 2018; 17(1):125 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: The prognosis for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) patients with lymph node metastasis (LNM) is still dismal. Elucidation of the LNM associated genomic alteration and underlying molecular mechanisms may provide clinical therapeutic strategies for ESCC treatment.
METHODS: Joint analysis of ESCC sequencing data were conducted to comprehensively survey SCNAs and identify driver genes which significantly associated with LNM. The roles of miR-548k in lymphangiogensis and lymphatic metastasis were validated both in vitro and in vivo. ESCC tissue and blood samples were analyzed for association between miR-548k expression and patient clinicopathological features and prognosis and diagnosis.
RESULTS: In the pooled cohort of 314 ESCC patients, we found 76 significant focused regions including 43 amplifications and 33 deletions. Clinical implication analysis revealed a panel of genes associated with LNM with the most frequently amplified gene being MIR548K harbored in the 11q13.3 amplicon. Overexpression of miR-548k remarkably promotes lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we demonstrated that miR-548k modulating the tumor microenvironment by promoting VEGFC secretion and stimulating lymphangiogenesis through ADAMTS1/VEGFC/VEGFR3 pathways, while promoting metastasis by regulating KLF10/EGFR axis. Importantly, we found that serum miR-548k and VEGFC of early stage ESCC patients were significantly higher than that in healthy donators, suggesting a promising application of miR-548k and VEGFC as biomarkers in early diagnosis of ESCC.
CONCLUSIONS: Our study comprehensively characterized SCNAs in ESCC and highlighted the crucial role of miR-548k in promoting lymphatic metastasis, which might be employed as a new diagnostic and prognostic marker for ESCC.

Mellatyar H, Talaei S, Pilehvar-Soltanahmadi Y, et al.
17-DMAG-loaded nanofibrous scaffold for effective growth inhibition of lung cancer cells through targeting HSP90 gene expression.
Biomed Pharmacother. 2018; 105:1026-1032 [PubMed] Related Publications
Up-regulation of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) gene takes place in lung cancer cells. Therefore, targeting HSP90 in lung cancer may be promising step in lung cancer therapy. The present study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of implantable 17-dimethylaminoethylamino-17-demethoxy geldanamycin (17-DMAG)-loaded Poly(caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PCL/PEG) nanofibers to increase the anti-cancer effects via inhibition of HSP90 expression and telomerase activity. For this purpose, 17-DMAG-loaded PCL/PEG nanofibers were successfully fabricated via electrospinning and characterized using FE-SEM and FTIR. Colorimetric MTT assay was used to determine the drug cytotoxicity. Also, the expression levels of HSP90 mRNA in the A549 cells treated with the nanofibers were assessed using Quantitative Real-Time PCR. The effect of free 17-DMAG and 17-DMAG-loaded PCL/PEG nanofiber treatment on telomerase activity was monitored by TRAP assay. MTT assay confirmed that loading of 17-DMAG into PCL/PEG nanofiber enhanced dramatically cytotoxicity in the lung cancer cells. This finding was associated with reduction of HSP90 mRNA expression and telomerase activity in the cells seeded on 17-DMAG-loaded PCL/PEG nanofibers in relative to free 17-DMAG. In conclusion, the findings demonstrated that 17-DMAG-loaded PCL/PEG nanofibers are more effectual than free 17-DMAG against A549 lung cancer cells via modulation of Hsp90 expression and inhibition of telomerase activity. Hence, the implantable 17-DMAG-loaded nanofibrous scaffolds might be an excellent tool for efficiently killing of the lung residual cancer cells and avoid the local cancer recurrence.

Reynders K, Wauters E, Moisse M, et al.
RNA-sequencing in non-small cell lung cancer shows gene downregulation of therapeutic targets in tumor tissue compared to non-malignant lung tissue.
Radiat Oncol. 2018; 13(1):131 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Gene expression of specific therapeutic targets in non-malignant lung tissue might play an important role in optimizing targeted therapies. This study aims to identify different expression patterns of fifteen genes important for targeted therapy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).
METHODS: We prospectively collected tissue of NSCLC and non-malignant lung tissue from 25 primary resected patients. RNA-sequencing and 450 K methylation array profiling was applied to both NSCLC and non-malignant lung tissue and data were analyzed for 14 target genes. We analyzed differential expression and methylation as well as expression according to patient characteristics like smoking status, histology, age, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, C-reactive protein (CRP) and gender. TCGA data served as a validation set.
RESULTS: Nineteen men and 6 women were included. Important targets like PD-L2 (p = 0.035), VEGFR2 (p < 0.001) and VEGFR3 (p < 0.001) were downregulated (respective fold changes = 1.8, 3.1, 2.7, 3.5) in tumor compared to non-malignant lung tissue. The TCGA set confirmed these findings almost universally. PD-L1 (p < 0.001) became also significantly downregulated in the TCGA set. In NSCLC, MUC1 (p = 0.003) showed a higher expression in patients with a CRP < 5 mg/L compared to > 5 mg/L. In the TCGA data but not in our primary data, PD-L1 & 2 were both borderline more expressed in tumors of active smokers vs. tumors of ex-smokers (p = 0.044 and 0.052).
CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a lower PD-L1 & 2 and VEGFR expression in NSCLC vs. non-malignant lung tissue. Specific patient characteristics did not seem to change the overall expression differences as they were in line with the overall results. This information may contribute to the optimization of targeted treatments.

Duan L, Ye L, Zhuang L, et al.
VEGFC/VEGFR3 axis mediates TGFβ1-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in non-small cell lung cancer cells.
PLoS One. 2018; 13(7):e0200452 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
In the tumor progression, transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) plays a critical role in tumorigenesis as well as metastasis. It is known that high plasma level of TGFβ1 in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is correlated with poor prognostics. In addition, the generation of cancer stem-like cells is associated with metastasis, drug resistance, and tumor recurrence, which also lead to poor outcomes in NSCLC patients. However, it remains unclear how TGFβ1 promotes NSCLC cells to acquire stem-like properties and accelerate tumor metastasis. In our study, we found that short term TGFβ1 treatment resulted in a significant epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) morphological change in TGFβ1-sensitive NSCLC cells but not in insensitive cells. Western blotting confirmed increased Vimentin and reduced E-Cadherin protein expression after TGFβ1 treatment in A549, NCI-H1993, and NCI-H358 cells. TGFβ1 incubation dramatically decreased in vitro cell proliferation and increased cell invasion in TGFβ1-sensitive NSCLC cells but not in NCI-H1975, NCI-H1650, and HCC827 cells. Moreover, TGFβ1 was able to enhance the mRNA expression of Oct4, Nanog and Sox2 and drastically increased anchorage-independent colony formation in TGFβ1-sensitive NSCLC cells, suggesting the acquisition of cancer stem-like properties. Interestingly, we found that vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR3) mRNA expression was significantly elevated in TGFβ1-sensitive NSCLC cells compared to insensitive cells. And TGFβ1 was capable of inducing VEGF-C gene expression. Pharmacological blocking TGFβ type I receptor kinase (ALK5) significantly inhibited TGFβ1-induced VEGF-C expression. Silencing of ALK5 by siRNA also dramatically reduced TGFβ1-induced VEGF-C expression in TGFβ1-sensitive NSCLC cells. Therefore, TGFβ1 contributes for NSCLC metastasis through promoting EMT, generation of high invasive cancer cells with stem-like properties, and increasing VEGF-C expression. Blocking TGFβ pathway is a potential therapeutic target in human non-small cell lung cancer.

Liu X, Li Z, Loh XJ, et al.
Targeted and Sustained Corelease of Chemotherapeutics and Gene by Injectable Supramolecular Hydrogel for Drug-Resistant Cancer Therapy.
Macromol Rapid Commun. 2019; 40(5):e1800117 [PubMed] Related Publications
Coadministration of chemotherapeutics as well as therapeutic gene could play a synergistic effect on cancer treatment. It is noteworthy that targeted and sustained codelivery of chemotherapeutic and therapeutic gene was rarely achieved in previous reports, while it might serve as an important platform for treating solid tumor with possible surrounding lesions. Herein, an injectable supramolecular hydrogel formed by α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) and cationic amphiphilic copolymer made of methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(ethylene imine) with folic acid targeted group (MPEG-PCL-PEI-FA), is rationally designed to achieve sustained codelivery of chemotherapeutic paclitaxel (PTX) and B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) conversion gene Nur77 in the form of nanocomplex up to 7 days, to effectively inhibit the growth of folate receptor overexpressing H460/Bcl-2 therapeutic-resistant tumors (induced by overexpression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein), with peritumoral injection rather than direct intratumoral injection of hydrogel. To the best of our knowledge, this is a pioneer report on injectable MPEG-PCL-PEI-FA/α-CD supramolecular hydrogel with the ability to codeliver and sustainedly release PTX and Nur77 gene to combat Bcl-2 overexpressed therapeutic-resistant tumors in a targeted manner, which might be beneficial for further design in personalized medicine.

Peng Y, Huang J, Xiao H, et al.
Codelivery of temozolomide and siRNA with polymeric nanocarrier for effective glioma treatment.
Int J Nanomedicine. 2018; 13:3467-3480 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Background: The treatment of glioma remains a challenge because conventional chemotherapy is often ineffective by drug resistance. Combinative therapy using chemotherapeutic agents and siRNA has demonstrated potential to improve anticancer outcome through a synergistic effect in various cancers. The current study aims to achieve better glioma treatment through a combinative therapy based on a folate-targeted nanocarrier carrying both temozolomide (TMZ) and anti-BCL-2 siRNA.
Methods: A polymeric micelle (TMZ-FaPEC@siRNA) incorporating TMZ and anti-BCL-2 siRNA was prepared based on folate-conjugated triblock copolymer (Fa-PEG-PEI-PCL, Fa-PEC) of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(ethylenimine) (PEI) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). The physicochemical properties and drug release profile of TMZ-FaPEC@siRNA were tested. The Fa-targeted drug delivery and joint effect of siRNA and TMZ to induce glioma apoptosis and tumor growth inhibition were evaluated both in vitro and in vivo.
Results: In vitro cell study demonstrated that the nanocarrier effectively facilitates codelivery of siRNA and TMZ into C6 cells, resulting in a strong apoptotic response of cancer cells by silencing the antiapoptosis BCL-2 gene and activating the proapoptotic Bax gene simultaneously. In vivo study in rat bearing orthotropic glioma showed that tumor growth was inhibited and meanwhile animal survival was prolonged remarkably through intracranial injection of TMZ-FaPEC@siRNA.
Conclusion: Our results evidence the strong efficacy of the folate-targeted nanomedicine carrying TMZ and BCL-2 siRNA in treating glioma.

Xiong Y, Liu Z, Zhao X, et al.
CPT1A regulates breast cancer-associated lymphangiogenesis via VEGF signaling.
Biomed Pharmacother. 2018; 106:1-7 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Lymphangiogenesis is critical for metastasis of a variety of cancers, including breast cancer. CPT1A (carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1a) has been reported to play a critical role in breast cancer progress. However, the molecular mechanism remains elusive.
METHODS: In order to investigate the role of CPT1A in HDLEC cells, short hairpin RNA approach was utilized to knock down the CPT1A gene expression. We employed transwell and lymphatic vessel formation assay to examine invasion and lymphangiogenesis of HDLEC (Human dermal lymphatic endothelial cells). RT-qPCR and westernblot analyses were used to determine genes expression in HDLEC and breast cancer cells. Finally, we determined the relative rate of acetyl-CoA/CoA in shNC and shCPT1A HDLEC cells by LC-MS approach.
RESULTS: Knockdown of CPT1A in breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) abolished invasion and lymphangiogenesis of HDLEC cells. Mechanistically, CPT1A depletion suppressed the expression of VEGF-C and VEGF-D in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Interestingly, CPT1A knockdown in HDLEC cells exhibited attenuated expression of lymphangiogenic markers (podoplanin, VEGFR-3, VEGF-C, VEGF-D and PROX-1). Consistently, CPT1A -null HDLEC cells displayed compromised invasion and lymphangiogenesis compared with negative control. Further investigation revealed that CPT1A regulated VEGFR3 via acetyl-CoA mediated H3K9ac, which could be abrogated by supplement of acetate.
CONCLUSIONS: In present study, we revealed the mechanism by which CPT1A regulates breast cancer-associated invasion and lymphangiogenesis. Our findings provide insights into CPT1A -promoted breast tumor metastasis and provide rationale for understanding breast cancer metastasis.

Qin T, Huang D, Liu Z, et al.
Tumor necrosis factor superfamily 15 promotes lymphatic metastasis via upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor-C in a mouse model of lung cancer.
Cancer Sci. 2018; 109(8):2469-2478 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Lymphatic metastasis is facilitated by lymphangiogenic growth factor vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGFC) that is secreted by some primary tumors. We previously identified tumor necrosis factor superfamily 15 (TNFSF15), a blood vascular endothelium-derived cytokine, in lymphatic endothelial cells, as a key molecular modulator during lymphangiogenesis. However, the effect of TNFSF15 on tumor lymphatic metastasis and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. We report here that TNFSF15, which is known to inhibit primary tumor growth by suppressing angiogenesis, can promote lymphatic metastasis through facilitating lymphangiogenesis in tumors. Mice bearing tumors induced by A549 cells stably overexpressing TNFSF15 exhibited a significant increase in densities of lymphatic vessels and a marked enhancement of A549 tumor cells in newly formed lymphatic vessels in the primary tumors as well as in lymph nodes. Treatment of A549 cells with TNFSF15 results in upregulation of VEGFC expression, which can be inhibited by siRNA gene silencing of death domain-containing receptor-3 (DR3), a cell surface receptor for TNFSF15. In addition, TNFSF15/DR3 signaling pathways in A549 cells include activation of NF-κB during tumor lymphangiogenesis. Our data indicate that TNFSF15, a cytokine mainly produced by blood endothelial cells, facilitates tumor lymphangiogenesis by upregulating VEGFC expression in A549 cells, contributing to lymphatic metastasis in tumor-bearing mice. This finding also suggests that TNFSF15 may have potential as an indicator for prognosis evaluation.

Agnihotri NS, Astekar M
The role of novel prognostic markers PROX1 and FOXC2 in carcinogenesis of oral squamous cell carcinoma.
J Exp Ther Oncol. 2018; 12(3):171-184 [PubMed] Related Publications
objective: Oral squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignant tumor of the head and neck regions and accounts for more than 90% of cancers in the oral cavity. The angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis and epithelial mesenchymal transition are known to be pivotal for tumor progression and metastasis. In the last decade, much data has been generated concerning the molecular mechanisms of angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis and its significance in pathological conditions. The main angiogenic and lymphangiogenic factors have been identified as vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2), forkhead box (FOX) C2 while vascular endothelial growth factor C/D (VEGF-C/D), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3), Prospero homeobox 1 (PROX1), LYVE-1, podoplanin, Tie/Angioprotein (Ang) 2 and EphrinB2 respectively. PROX1 is a mammalian homologue of Drosophilia homeobox protein, prospero and important for the embryonic development of many mammalian tissues. It has been suggested that it plays various tissue dependent functional roles, which reflects both oncogenic potential and a tumor suppressive role. The exact role in OSCC remains controversial. FOXC2 is a transcription factor belongs to large family of protein, forkhead box. It has been shown to be involved in cancer angiogenesis, proliferation and metastasis through its induction of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition while its significance in OSCC remains unknown. Based on these data, this article reviews the role of novel prognostic factors PROX1 and FOXC2 in carcinogenesis of OSCC so that they might be considered as an attractive therapeutic target for both tumor associated blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and tumor cells.

Berardi R, Torniai M, Partelli S, et al.
Impact of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) single nucleotide polymorphisms on outcome in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms.
PLoS One. 2018; 13(5):e0197035 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Angiogenesis represents a key event in cancer development, leading to local invasion e metastatization, and might be considered a basic feature in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (GEP-NENs) with a high expression of angiogenic molecules. We aimed to analyze the prognostic and predictive role of angiogenic factors in GEP-NENs through the analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of VEGF-A, VEGFR2 and VEGFR3. The genomic DNA of 58 consecutive patients with GEP-NENs treated at our Institution was extracted from peripheral blood. Two SNPs were identified respectively in VEGF-A (rs2010963G>C, rs699947A>C), VEGFR-2 (rs2305948C>T, rs1870377T>A), and VEGFR-3 (rs307821T>C, rs307826C>A) gene. Gene polymorphisms were determined by Real-Time PCR using TaqMan assays. Median age was 57 years (range 24-79 years); 32 patients were male and 77.5% of NENs were localized in the pancreas. The allele frequency of VEGFR-2 rs2305948T and of VEGF-A rs2010963C showed a trend of higher frequency than in general population (12.1% vs. 8.0% and 34.5% vs. 31.2%, respectively). Three out SNPs (VEGF-A rs699947C, VEGF-A rs2010963GC and VEGFR-3 rs307821C) showed a correlation with an increased risk of disease relapse. Moreover median PFS changes according to the presence of 0-1 SNPs (20.7% of cases; 61.9 months), 2 SNPs (25.9%; 49.2 months) and 3 SNPs (53.4%; 27.8 months) (p = 0.034). Results suggest, for the first time, that specific SNPs in VEGF-A and VEGFR-3 correlate with poor prognosis in GEP-NENs. The identification of this new prognostic factor might be helpful in order to optimize the management of these heterogeneous neoplasms.

Hamidreza Kheiri M, Alimohammadi N, Danafar H
Preparation of biocompatible copolymeric micelles as a carrier of atorvastatin and rosuvastatin for potential anticancer activity study.
Pharm Dev Technol. 2019; 24(3):303-313 [PubMed] Related Publications
Statins are widely used for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. However, their inhibitory action on HMG-CoA reductase also results in the depletion of intermediate biosynthetic products, which importantly contribute to cell proliferation. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of the individual commercially available statins on investigational breast cancer. Thus, in this study, biodegradable polymeric micelles as carrier of statins were prepared using biodegradable copolymers (PCL-PEG-PCL). These nanoparticles were prepared with two statins (atorvastatin and rosuvastatin) and drug loading, release, kinetic release, and anti-cancer activity of these drugs were studied. The triblock copolymer PCL-PEG-PCL was synthesized by a ring opening polymerization of e-caprolactone in the presence of PEG as the initiator and Sn(oct)

Rezaie Z, Ardeshirylajimi A, Ashkezari MD
Improved anticancer properties of stem cells derived exosomes by prolonged release from PCL nanofibrous structure.
Gene. 2018; 665:105-110 [PubMed] Related Publications
Systemic chemotherapy as a routine method for the treatment of cancers has several complications. Localized chemotherapy can significantly increase the treatment efficacy and reduce side effects. Here, mesenchymal stem cells derived microvesicles (MVs) was incorporated into Polycaprolactone nanofibers and then the apoptotic behavior of MCF-7 breast cancer cells was investigated while cultured on MVs-Polycaprolactone by using SEM, MTT and apoptotic gene expression. Results demonstrated that MVs-Polycaprolactone group was shown a great apoptosis induction potential into MCF-7 cells and it can be concluded that MVs-Polycaprolactone has a great promising potential to introduce as an in-situ tumor inhibitor construct rather than chemo-drugs.

Nakayama S, Oda T, Minabe S, et al.
Primary Nonsecretory Plasma Cell Leukemia With Multiple Chromosomal Abnormalities: A Case Report.
Arch Iran Med. 2018; 21(1):41-43 [PubMed] Related Publications
Primary nonsecretory plasma cell leukemia (PCL) is an extremely rare type of multiple myeloma. Here, we report a case of nonsecretory PCL with no previous history of multiple myeloma. The case exhibited extremely low levels of serum immunoglobulin and light chain, no detectable serum M-protein or free light chain restriction, no urine BJP, and no cytoplasmic light chain expression in flow cytometry. In fluorescence in situ hybridization, tumor cells exhibited fusion genes for IgH/BCL1 and IgH/cMyc, disappearance of the p53 signal, and a split signal for IgK(2p11), but no split signal for IgL (22q11). Therefore, we diagnosed primary nonsecretory PCL with multiple chromosomal abnormalities.

Ferrari SM, Bocci G, Di Desidero T, et al.
Lenvatinib exhibits antineoplastic activity in anaplastic thyroid cancer in vitro and in vivo.
Oncol Rep. 2018; 39(5):2225-2234 [PubMed] Related Publications
Lenvatinib is an oral, multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) of VEGFR1-VEGFR3, FGFR1-FGFR4, PDGFRα, RET and v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KIT) signaling networks involved in tumor angiogenesis. We have evaluated the antitumor activity of lenvatinib in primary anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) cells, in the human cell line 8305C (undifferentiated thyroid cancer) and in an ATC-cell line (AF). The AF cell line was obtained from the primary ATC cultures and was the one that grew over 50 passages. The effect of lenvatinib (1 and 100 nM; and 1, 10, 25 and 50 µM) was investigated in primary ATC, 8305C and AF cells as well as in AF cells in CD nu/nu mice. Lenvatinib significantly reduced ATC cell proliferation (P<0.01, ANOVA) and increased the percentage of apoptotic ATC cells (P<0.001, ANOVA). Furthermore, lenvatinib inhibited migration (P<0.01) and invasion (P<0.001) in ATC. In addition, lenvatinib inhibited EGFR, AKT and ERK1/2 phosphorylation and downregulated cyclin D1 in the ATC cells. Lenvatinib also significantly inhibited 8305C and AF cell proliferation, increasing apoptosis. AF cells were subcutaneously injected into CD nu/nu mice and tumor masses were observed 20 days later. Tumor growth was significantly inhibited by lenvatinib (25 mg/kg/day), as well as the expression of VEGF-A and microvessel density in the AF tumor tissues. In conclusion, the antitumor and antiangiogenic activities of lenvatinib may be promising for the treatment of anaplastic thyroid cancer, and may consist a basis for future clinical therapeutic applications.

Ogura Y, Yabuki S, Fujibayashi S, et al.
A screening method to distinguish syndromic from sporadic spinal extradural arachnoid cyst.
J Orthop Sci. 2018; 23(3):455-458 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Spinal extradural arachnoid cyst (SEDAC) is a cystic lesion that protrudes into the epidural space from a small dural defect. Early diagnosis of SEDAC is important because its expansion causes neurological damage. Two types of SEDAC, syndromic and sporadic, are present. Syndromic SEDAC is inherited as a part of lymphedema-distichiasis syndrome caused by mutations in the FOXC2 gene; however, it is often mistaken as sporadic because of low penetrance. It is not reasonable to conduct a genetic testing for all SEDAC patients and their family members. The aim of this study is to establish an effective screening method to distinguish syndromic SEDAC from sporadic SEDAC.
METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of medical records and imaging studies of 29 subjects who were diagnosed with SEDAC. Clinical features, family history and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were analyzed. Mutations in FOXC2 were examined by Sanger-sequencing of the entire coding region of the genes. SEDAC having a mutation in FOXC2 gene was defined with syndromic SEDAC.
RESULTS: Eleven subjects had a heterozygous mutation in FOXC2. They were all familial and hence syndromic SEDAC. Only one proband had known family history of SEDAC at diagnosis. MRI findings and physical examinations, especially eye and leg examinations, were quite useful to screen syndromic SEDAC. Physical examination often showed accompanying lymphedema and distichiasis in syndromic SEDAC. Syndromic SEDAC tended to have multiple cysts out of the thoracolumbar area.
CONCLUSIONS: We established an effective screening method based on physical examinations and MRI findings.

Zhao CL, Han SN, Wang ZJ, et al.
Concomitant modulation of PTEN and Livin in gastric cancer treatment.
Int J Mol Med. 2018; 41(5):2901-2908 [PubMed] Related Publications
Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) and Livin are important in the development of gastric cancer (GC). PTEN and Livin are involved in the regulation of tumor cell proliferation, migration and apoptosis. The modulation of PTEN or Livin has been investigated extensively in various cancer models. However, no studies have been performed to evaluate the combined effect of concurrently modulating these two genes on the development of GC. In the present study, the BGC823 human gastric carcinoma cell line was transfected with a dual gene modified vector (pCL-neo-PTEN-siLivin) in parallel with single gene modified vectors (pCL‑neo‑PTEN or pRNAT‑U6.1‑siLivin), and an empty control vector. Dual gene modulation (pCL‑neo‑PTEN‑siLivin) had a more marked effect on the inhibition of cell proliferation, induction of apoptosis, and reduction of cell penetration in Matrigel, compared with either single gene alone or empty vector transfection. In a xenograft nude mouse model, the inoculation of pCL‑neo‑PTEN‑siLivin‑transfected BGC823 cells led to a markedly reduced tumor burden, compared with that in all other inoculation groups. In conclusion, the overexpression of PTEN concomitant with Livin gene silencing was confirmed as a feasible and effective in vitro and in vivo gene modulation method, which may represent a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of GC.

Ding F, Mou Q, Ma Y, et al.
A Crosslinked Nucleic Acid Nanogel for Effective siRNA Delivery and Antitumor Therapy.
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2018; 57(12):3064-3068 [PubMed] Related Publications
Functional siRNAs are employed as cross-linkers to direct the self-assembly of DNA-grafted polycaprolactone (DNA-g-PCL) brushes to form spherical and nanosized hydrogels via nucleic acid hybridization in which small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are fully embedded and protected for systemic delivery. Owing to the existence of multivalent mutual crosslinking events inside, the crosslinked nanogels with tunable size exhibit not only good thermostability, but also remarkable physiological stability that can resist the enzymatic degradation. As a novel siRNA delivery system with spherical nucleic acid (SNA) architecture, the crosslinked nanogels can assist the delivery of siRNAs into different cells without any transfection agents and achieve the gene silencing effectively both in vitro and in vivo, through which a significant inhibition of tumor growth is realized in the anticancer treatment.

Xin X, Zeng X, Feng D, et al.
The suppressive role of calcium sensing receptor in endometrial cancer.
Sci Rep. 2018; 8(1):1076 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Studies have shown that calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) is involved in the progressions of several human cancers. However, the role of CaSR in endometrial cancer remains unknown. This study provides a preliminary analysis of the CaSR effect on endometrial cancer development. Ectopic CaSR expression by lentiviral transfection (CaSR-OV) in Ishikawa cells significantly increased intracellular calcium ([Ca

Wang J, Huang Y, Zhang J, et al.
NRP-2 in tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis.
Cancer Lett. 2018; 418:176-184 [PubMed] Related Publications
Neuropilin-2 (NRP-2) not only functions as a receptor for semaphorins, a family of neural axon guidance factors, but also interacts with VEGFs, a family of vascular endothelial growth factors. As an independent receptor or a co-receptor, NRP-2 binds to ligands VEGF-C/D, activates the VEGF-C/D-NRP-2 signaling axis, and further regulates lymphangiogenesis-associated factors in both lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) and some tumor cells during tumor progression. Via VEGF-C/D-NRP-2 axis, NRP-2 induces LEC proliferation, reconstruction and lymphangiogenesis and subsequently promotes tumor cell migration, invasion and lymphatic metastasis. There are similarities and differences among NRP-1, NRP-2 and VEGFR-3 in chemical structure, ligand specificity, chromosomal location, soluble protein forms, cellular functions and expression profiles. High expression of NRP-2 in LECs and tumor cells has been observed in different anatomic sites, histological patterns and progression stages of various tumors, especially during tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis, and therefore the NRP-2 and VEGF-C/D-NRP-2 axis are closely related to tumor development, progression, invasion, and metastasis. In addition, it is important for prognosis of tumor. The studies on NRP-2 targeted therapy have recently achieved some successes, utilizing NRP-2 blocking antibodies, NRP-2 inhibitory peptides, soluble NRP-2 antagonists, small molecule inhibitors and various NRP-2 gene therapeutic strategies.

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