CDX1

Gene Summary

Gene:CDX1; caudal type homeobox 1
Location:5q32
Summary:This gene is a member of the caudal-related homeobox transcription factor gene family. The encoded DNA-binding protein regulates intestine-specific gene expression and enterocyte differentiation. It has been shown to induce expression of the intestinal alkaline phosphatase gene, and inhibit beta-catenin/T-cell factor transcriptional activity. [provided by RefSeq, Jul 2008]
Databases:OMIM, HGNC, Ensembl, GeneCard, Gene
Protein:homeobox protein CDX-1
Source:NCBIAccessed: 01 September, 2019

Ontology:

What does this gene/protein do?
Show (7)

Cancer Overview

Research Indicators

Publications Per Year (1994-2019)
Graph generated 01 September 2019 using data from PubMed using criteria.

Literature Analysis

Mouse over the terms for more detail; many indicate links which you can click for dedicated pages about the topic.

  • Homeodomain Proteins
  • Base Sequence
  • Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
  • DNA Methylation
  • Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-myc
  • Polymerase Chain Reaction
  • Cell Proliferation
  • Chromosome 5
  • Tumor Suppressor Proteins
  • Intestinal Mucosa
  • Signal Transduction
  • Cell Differentiation
  • Neoplastic Cell Transformation
  • HT29 Cells
  • Messenger RNA
  • Cancer Gene Expression Regulation
  • Precancerous Conditions
  • Homeobox Genes
  • Colorectal Cancer
  • CDX2 Transcription Factor
  • Gene Expression Profiling
  • Promoter Regions
  • Colonic Neoplasms
  • RTPCR
  • Metaplasia
  • Barrett Esophagus
  • Molecular Sequence Data
  • Biomarkers, Tumor
  • Cancer DNA
  • Adenocarcinoma
  • Transcription
  • Down-Regulation
  • Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis
  • Neoplasm Proteins
  • Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
  • Models, Genetic
  • TNF
  • Stomach Cancer
  • Young Adult
  • Transcriptional Activation
Tag cloud generated 01 September, 2019 using data from PubMed, MeSH and CancerIndex

Specific Cancers (3)

Data table showing topics related to specific cancers and associated disorders. Scope includes mutations and abnormal protein expression.

Note: list is not exhaustive. Number of papers are based on searches of PubMed (click on topic title for arbitrary criteria used).

Latest Publications: CDX1 (cancer-related)

Mozaffari Namin B, Soltan Dallal MM
Campylobacter Concisus and Its Effect on the Expression of CDX1 and COX2
Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2018; 19(11):3211-3216 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Background: Barrett’s oesophagus (BO) is a pre-malignant condition in which normal squamous epithelium of the lower oesophagus and gastresophageal junction is replaced by columnar cells and progress to oesophageal adenocarcinoma. The increase burden of oesophagus cancer morbidity and mortality worldwide make study of factors involved in the pathogenesis of BO essential. However, most of studies that examine the environmental risk factors associated with increased incidence and prevalence of BO have largely ignored the potential role of bacteria in disease aetiology. Aims: This study examined the role of Campylobacter concisus isolated from Barrett’s and adenocarcinoma patient samples as one of possible environmental factors in the progression of Barrett’s oesophagus to oesophagus adenocarcinoma. Methods: We focused on the effect of C. concisus on the expression caudal type homeobox 1 gene (CDX1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in three BO cell lines using quantitative real-time PCR. In addition, the attachment and invasion characteristics of C. concisus were also tested. Results: Results showed that C. concisus had a strong attachment to the cell lines and induce the expression of CDX1 in Barrett’s cell lines in a time-dependent manner. Conclusion: Findings indicate that C. concisus could be as a new challenge in the progression of BO to adenocarcinoma.

Nakayama C, Yamamichi N, Tomida S, et al.
Transduced caudal-type homeobox (CDX) 2/CDX1 can induce growth inhibition on CDX-deficient gastric cancer by rapid intestinal differentiation.
Cancer Sci. 2018; 109(12):3853-3864 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Intestinal metaplasia induced by ectopic expression of caudal-type homeobox (CDX)2 and/or CDX1 (CDX) is frequently observed around gastric cancer (GC). Abnormal expression of CDX is also observed in GC and suggests that inappropriate gastrointestinal differentiation plays essential roles in gastric tumorigenesis, but their roles on tumorigenesis remain unelucidated. Publicly available databases show that GC patients with higher CDX expression have significantly better clinical outcomes. We introduced CDX2 and CDX1 genes separately into GC-originated MKN7 and TMK1 cells deficient in CDX. Marked suppression of cell growth and dramatic morphological change into spindle-shaped flat form were observed along with induction of intestinal marker genes. G0-G1 growth arrest was accompanied by changed expression of cell cycle-related genes but not with apoptosis or senescence. Microarray analyses additionally showed decreased expression of gastric marker genes and increased expression of stemness-associated genes. Hierarchical clustering of 111 GC tissues and 21 non-cancerous gastric tissues by selected 18 signature genes based on our transcriptome analyses clearly categorized the 132 tissues into non-cancer, "CDX signature"-positive GC, and "CDX signature"-negative GC. Gene set enrichment analysis indicated that "CDX signature"-positive GC has lower malignant features. Immunohistochemistry of 89 GC specimens showed that 50.6% were CDX2-deficient, 66.3% were CDX1-deficient, and 44.9% were concomitant CDX2/CDX1-deficient, suggesting that potentially targetable GC cases by induced intestinal differentiation are quite common. In conclusion, exogenous expression of CDX2/CDX1 can lead to efficient growth inhibition of CDX-deficient GC cells. It is based on rapidly induced intestinal differentiation, which may be a future therapeutic strategy.

Kiani S, Akhavan-Niaki H, Fattahi S, et al.
Purified sulforaphane from broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) leads to alterations of CDX1 and CDX2 expression and changes in miR-9 and miR-326 levels in human gastric cancer cells.
Gene. 2018; 678:115-123 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Genetic alterations and epigenetic modifications are two main factors involved in gastric carcinogenesis, progression, and metastasis. Several miRNAs such as miRNA-9 and miRNA-326 may play important role in gastric cancer by targeting the 3'UTR of the caudal type homeobox (CDX) 1 and 2 mRNA respectively. The use of herbal medicines has been widely considered in the treatment of cancers such as gastric cancer. Sulforaphane extracted from broccoli may indirectly prevent cancer through affecting different signaling pathways. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different concentrations of sulforaphane extracted from broccoli sprout (SEBS) on viability, death pattern, and expression alterations of CDX1/2 as well as miRNA-9 and miRNA-326 in normal (HF2FF) and gastric cancer cell lines.
METHODS: Two gastric cancer cell lines (AGS and MKN45) and HF2FF normal cell line were cultured and treated with different concentrations (31.25, 62.5, 125, and 250 μg/ml) of the purified sulforaphane. Expression levels of CDX1 and CDX2 as well as miRNA-9 and miRNA-326, and mechanisms leading to cell death were assessed by Taqman real time PCR assay and flow cytometry, respectively.
RESULTS: Significant dose-dependent and anti-proliferative effects of the SEBS were observed on AGS and MKN45 cells after 48 h with an IC50 value of about 112 and 125 μg/ml, respectively (P < 0.001). Apoptotic cells were observed in AGS and MKN45 cells but not HF2FF after 48 h of treatment with SEBS. Furthermore, significant changes in expression of CDX1, CDX2, miR-9 and miR-326 in the gastric cancer lines (AGS and MKN45), were observed under different concentrations of SEBS.
CONCLUSION: Our present study suggests that the SEBS may influence gastric cancer cell lines at specific doses and change their proliferation rate by altering the expression of CDX1, CDX2, miR-9, and miR-326.

Cheong JH, Yang HK, Kim H, et al.
Predictive test for chemotherapy response in resectable gastric cancer: a multi-cohort, retrospective analysis.
Lancet Oncol. 2018; 19(5):629-638 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Adjuvant chemotherapy after surgery improves survival of patients with stage II-III, resectable gastric cancer. However, the overall survival benefit observed after adjuvant chemotherapy is moderate, suggesting that not all patients with resectable gastric cancer treated with adjuvant chemotherapy benefit from it. We aimed to develop and validate a predictive test for adjuvant chemotherapy response in patients with resectable, stage II-III gastric cancer.
METHODS: In this multi-cohort, retrospective study, we developed through a multi-step strategy a predictive test consisting of two rule-based classifier algorithms with predictive value for adjuvant chemotherapy response and prognosis. Exploratory bioinformatics analyses identified biologically relevant candidate genes in gastric cancer transcriptome datasets. In the discovery analysis, a four-gene, real-time RT-PCR assay was developed and analytically validated in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tumour tissues from an internal cohort of 307 patients with stage II-III gastric cancer treated at the Yonsei Cancer Center with D2 gastrectomy plus adjuvant fluorouracil-based chemotherapy (n=193) or surgery alone (n=114). The same internal cohort was used to evaluate the prognostic and chemotherapy response predictive value of the single patient classifier genes using associations with 5-year overall survival. The results were validated with a subset (n=625) of FFPE tumour samples from an independent cohort of patients treated in the CLASSIC trial (NCT00411229), who received D2 gastrectomy plus capecitabine and oxaliplatin chemotherapy (n=323) or surgery alone (n=302). The primary endpoint was 5-year overall survival.
FINDINGS: We identified four classifier genes related to relevant gastric cancer features (GZMB, WARS, SFRP4, and CDX1) that formed the single patient classifier assay. In the validation cohort, the prognostic single patient classifier (based on the expression of GZMB, WARS, and SFRP4) identified 79 (13%) of 625 patients as low risk, 296 (47%) as intermediate risk, and 250 (40%) as high risk, and 5-year overall survival for these groups was 83·2% (95% CI 75·2-92·0), 74·8% (69·9-80·1), and 66·0% (60·1-72·4), respectively (p=0·012). The predictive single patient classifier (based on the expression of GZMB, WARS, and CDX1) assigned 281 (45%) of 625 patients in the validation cohort to the chemotherapy-benefit group and 344 (55%) to the no-benefit group. In the predicted chemotherapy-benefit group, 5-year overall survival was significantly improved in those patients who had received adjuvant chemotherapy after surgery compared with those who received surgery only (80% [95% CI 73·5-87·1] vs 64·5% [56·8-73·3]; univariate hazard ratio 0·47 [95% CI 0·30-0·75], p=0·0015), whereas no such improvement in 5-year overall survival was observed in the no-benefit group (72·9% [66·5-79·9] in patients who received chemotherapy plus surgery vs 72·5% [65·8-79·9] in patients who only had surgery; 0·93 [0·62-1·38], p=0·71). The predictive single patient classifier groups (chemotherapy benefit vs no-benefit) could predict adjuvant chemotherapy benefit in terms of 5-year overall survival in the validation cohort (p
INTERPRETATION: The single patient classifiers validated in this study provide clinically important prognostic information independent of standard risk-stratification methods and predicted chemotherapy response after surgery in two independent cohorts of patients with resectable, stage II-III gastric cancer. The single patient classifiers could complement TNM staging to optimise decision making in patients with resectable gastric cancer who are eligible for adjuvant chemotherapy after surgery. Further validation of these results in prospective studies is warranted.
FUNDING: Ministry of ICT and Future Planning; Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy; and Ministry of Health and Welfare.

Zheng R, Lin S, Guan L, et al.
Long non-coding RNA XIST inhibited breast cancer cell growth, migration, and invasion via miR-155/CDX1 axis.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2018; 498(4):1002-1008 [PubMed] Related Publications
Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) is an important member of non-coding RNA family and emerging evidence has indicated that it plays a pivotal role in many physiological and pathological processes. The lncRNA X inactive specific transcript (XIST) is a potential tumour suppressor in some types of cancers. However, the expression and function of XIST in breast cancer remain largely unclear. The objective of this study was to evaluate the expression and biological role of XIST in breast cancer. The results showed that XIST was significantly down-regulated in breast cancer tissues and cell lines. Further functional analysis indicated that overexpression of XIST remarkably inhibited breast cancer cell growth, migration, and invasion. The results of luciferase reporter assays verified that miR-155 was a direct target of XIST in breast cancer. Moreover, caudal-type homeobox 1 (CDX1) was identified as a direct target of miR-155 and miR-155/CDX1 rescued the effects of XIST in breast cancer cells. Taken together, our results suggest that XIST is down-regulated in breast cancer and suppresses breast cancer cell growth, migration, and invasion via the miR-155/CDX1 axis.

Chang KTE, Goytain A, Tucker T, et al.
Development and Evaluation of a Pan-Sarcoma Fusion Gene Detection Assay Using the NanoString nCounter Platform.
J Mol Diagn. 2018; 20(1):63-77 [PubMed] Related Publications
The NanoString nCounter assay is a high-throughput hybridization technique using target-specific probes that can be customized to test for numerous fusion transcripts in a single assay using RNA from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded material. We designed a NanoString assay targeting 174 unique fusion junctions in 25 sarcoma types. The study cohort comprised 212 cases, 96 of which showed fusion gene expression by the NanoString assay, including all 20 Ewing sarcomas, 11 synovial sarcomas, and 5 myxoid liposarcomas tested. Among these 96 cases, 15 showed fusion expression not identified by standard clinical assay, including EWSR1-FLI1, EWSR1-ERG, BCOR-CCNB3, ZC3H7B-BCOR, HEY1-NCOA2, CIC-DUX4, COL1A1-PDGFB, MYH9-USP6, YAP1-TFE3, and IRF2BP2-CDX1 fusions. There were no false-positive results; however, four cases were false negative when compared with clinically available fluorescence in situ hybridization or RT-PCR testing. When batched as six cases, the per-sample reagent cost was less than conventional techniques, such as fluorescence in situ hybridization, with technologist hands-on time of 1.2 hours per case and assay time of 36 hours. In summary, the NanoString nCounter Sarcoma Fusion CodeSet reliably and cost-effectively identifies fusion genes in sarcomas using formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded material, including many fusions missed by standard clinical assays, and can serve as a first-line clinical diagnostic test for sarcoma fusion gene identification, replacing multiple individual clinical assays.

Yang L, Li C, Liang F, et al.
MiRNA-155 promotes proliferation by targeting caudal-type homeobox 1 (CDX1) in glioma cells.
Biomed Pharmacother. 2017; 95:1759-1764 [PubMed] Related Publications
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in the tumorigenesis of glioma. Recent studies showed that miR-155 expression was increased in types of cancer, including glioma. However, the underlying mechanism of miR-155 on glioma is still unclear. In the present study, expression of miR-155 and caudal-type homeobox 1 (CDX1) was determined in glioma tissues by qRT-PCR, and the regulatory axis was further studied in glioma cells. We showed that miR-155 expression was significantly increased in glioma tissues while CDX1 expression was decreased. Correlation analysis revealed that miR-155 was negatively correlated with CDX1 expression in glioma tissues. Moreover, Kaplan-Meier analysis indicated that patients with high miR-155 expression had a poor overall survival. In addition, our results showed that the translation of CDX1 expression could be suppressed by miR-155 mimics. And miR-155 mimics promoted glioma cell proliferation could be reversed by CDX1 overexpression. In vivo assay, we showed that miR-155 overexpression promoted the progress of tumor formation. Therefore, we suggested that miR-155 might promote glioma cell growth partially by targeting CDX1, which provided a novel therapeutic strategy for glioma patients.

Mao Y, Shen J, Lu Y, et al.
RNA sequencing analyses reveal novel differentially expressed genes and pathways in pancreatic cancer.
Oncotarget. 2017; 8(26):42537-42547 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Gene expression microarrays have identified many tumor markers and therapeutic targets for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, microarray profilings have limited sensitivity and are prone to cross-hybridization between homologous DNA fragments. Here, we perform a transcriptome analysis of paired tumor and adjacent benign pancreatic tissues from 10 patients who underwent resection for PDAC. We identify a total of 2736 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with false discovery rate less than 0.05, including 1554 upregulated, 1182 downregulated, and 6 microRNAs (miR-614, miR-217, miR-27b, miR-4451, miR-3609, and miR-612). Overexpression of five DEGs, i.e. KRT16, HOXA10, CDX1, SI, and SERPINB5 in tumors is confirmed by RT-PCR in 20 additional tissues. Overexpression of KRT16 in PDAC is also verified on protein level. In addition, top canonical pathways such as granulocyte adhesion and diapedesis pathway have been identified. Our study represents a comprehensive characterization of the PDAC transcriptome and provides insight to the mechanisms of pancreatic carcinogenesis and potential biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets for pancreatic cancer.

Yang Y, Zhao L, Huang B, et al.
A New Approach to Evaluating Aberrant DNA Methylation Profiles in Hepatocellular Carcinoma as Potential Biomarkers.
Sci Rep. 2017; 7:46533 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Hypermethylation of CpG islands in the promoter region of tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) and their subsequent silencing is thought to be one of the main mechanisms of carcinogenesis. MBD2b enrichment coupled with a NimbleGen array was applied to examine the genome-wide CpG island methylation profile of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Hypermethylated DNA of 58 pairs of HCC and adjacent tissue samples was enriched and hybridized in the same array. Aberrant hypermethylated peaks of HCC and adjacent tissues were screened and annotated after data processing using NimbleScan2.5 and our newly developed Weighting and Scoring (WAS) method, respectively. Validation using bisulfite sequencing of randomly selected ANKRD45, APC, CDX1, HOXD3, PTGER and TUBB6 genes demonstrated significant hypermethylation modification in HCC samples, consistent with the array data.

Picco G, Petti C, Sassi F, et al.
Efficacy of NEDD8 Pathway Inhibition in Preclinical Models of Poorly Differentiated, Clinically Aggressive Colorectal Cancer.
J Natl Cancer Inst. 2017; 109(2) [PubMed] Related Publications
Background: The NEDD8 conjugation pathway modulates the ubiquitination and activity of a wide range of intracellular proteins, and its blockade by pevonedistat is emerging as a promising therapeutic approach in various cancer settings. However, systematic characterization of pevonedistat efficacy in specific tumor types and definition of response predictors are still missing.
Methods: We investigated in vitro sensitivity to pevonedistat in 122 colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines by an ATP-based proliferation assay and evaluated apoptosis and DNA content by flow cytometry. Associations between pevonedistat sensitivity and CRC molecular features were assessed by Student's t test. A 184-gene transcriptional predictor was generated in cell lines and applied to 87 metastatic CRC samples for which patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) were available. In vivo reponse to pevonedistat was assessed in PDX models (≥5 mice per group). All statistical tests were two-sided.
Results: Sixteen (13.1%) cell lines displayed a marked response to pevonedistat, featuring DNA re-replication, proliferative block, and increased apoptosis. Pevonedistat sensitivity did not statistically significantly correlate with microsatellite instability or mutations in KRAS or BRAF and was functionally associated with low EGFR pathway activity. While ineffective on predicted resistant PDXs, in vivo administration of pevonedistat statistically significantly impaired growth of five out of six predicted sensitive models (P < .01). In samples from CRC patients, transcriptional prediction of pevonedistat sensitivity was associated with poor prognosis after surgery (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.49, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.34 to 4.62, P = .003) and early progression under cetuximab treatment (HR = 3.59, 95% CI = 1.60 to 8.04, P < .001). Histological and immunohistochemical analyses revealed that the pevonedistat sensitivity signature captures transcriptional traits of poor differentiation and high-grade mucinous adenocarcinoma.
Conclusions: These results highlight NEDD8-pathway inhibition by pevonedistat as a potentially effective treatment for poorly differentiated, clinically aggressive CRC.

Joo MK, Park JJ, Chun HJ
Impact of homeobox genes in gastrointestinal cancer.
World J Gastroenterol. 2016; 22(37):8247-8256 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Homeobox genes, including

Zheng H, Yang Y, Wang MC, et al.
Low CDX1 expression predicts a poor prognosis for hepatocellular carcinoma patients after hepatectomy.
Surg Oncol. 2016; 25(3):171-7 [PubMed] Related Publications
The caudal-type homeobox 1 (CDX1) transcription factor is a member of the caudal-related homeobox transcription factor gene family and has been reported to be down-regulated in a variety of cancers. However, the expression status and significance of CDX1 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is still controversial, and little is known about the role of CDX1 in HCC·In our previous study, we investigated the expression and clinical significance of CDX1 in HCC samples from 313 HCC patients. We found CDX1 was strikingly down-regulated in HCC samples. CDX1 expression was associated with poor differentiation (P = 0.002), and patients with low CDX1 expression had a significantly poorer prognosis. A subgroup analysis revealed a difference in prognosis between groups with low and high CDX1 expression among patients who had tumors <5 cm in size and who were alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) negative. Moreover, low expression was more frequently observed in the early recurrence group (within 2 years, P = 0.002). In addition, multivariate Cox regression analysis indicated that the CDX1 expression level, tumor size, presence of hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg), vascular invasion, and presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) were independent risk factors for HCC recurrence, and the CDX1 expression level, tumor size, tumor number, and presence of HBsAg were independent predictor of overall survival of HCC patients. In conclusion, the downregulation of CDX1 is associated with poor prognosis; and it may serve as a novel predictor of the prognosis of HCC patients after curative resection.

Onstenk W, Sieuwerts AM, Mostert B, et al.
Molecular characteristics of circulating tumor cells resemble the liver metastasis more closely than the primary tumor in metastatic colorectal cancer.
Oncotarget. 2016; 7(37):59058-59069 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: CTCs are a promising alternative for metastatic tissue biopsies for use in precision medicine approaches. We investigated to what extent the molecular characteristics of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) resemble the liver metastasis and/or the primary tumor from patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC).
RESULTS: The CTC profiles were concordant with the liver metastasis in 17/23 patients (74%) and with the primary tumor in 13 patients (57%). The CTCs better resembled the liver metastasis in 13 patients (57%), and the primary tumor in five patients (22%). The strength of the correlations was not associated with clinical parameters. Nine genes (CDH1, CDH17, CDX1, CEACAM5, FABP1, FCGBP, IGFBP3, IGFBP4, and MAPT) displayed significant differential expressions, all of which were downregulated, in CTCs compared to the tissues in the 23 patients.
PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients were retrospectively selected from a prospective study. Using the CellSearch System, CTCs were enumerated and isolated just prior to liver metastasectomy. A panel of 25 CTC-specific genes was measured by RT-qPCR in matching CTCs, primary tumors, and liver metastases. Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated and considered as continuous variables with r=1 representing absolute concordance and r=-1 representing absolute discordance. A cut-off of r>0.1 was applied in order to consider profiles to be concordant.
CONCLUSIONS: In the majority of the patients, CTCs reflected the molecular characteristics of metastatic cells better than the primary tumors. Genes involved in cell adhesion and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition were downregulated in the CTCs. Our results support the use of CTC characterization as a liquid biopsy for precision medicine.

Sue S, Shibata W, Kameta E, et al.
Intestine-specific homeobox (ISX) induces intestinal metaplasia and cell proliferation to contribute to gastric carcinogenesis.
J Gastroenterol. 2016; 51(10):949-60 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Helicobacter pylori induces chronic inflammation and intestinal metaplasia (IM) through genetic and epigenetic changes and activation of intracellular signaling pathways that contribute to gastric carcinogenesis. However, the precise mechanism of IM in gastric carcinogenesis has not been fully elucidated. We previously found that intestine-specific homeobox (ISX) mRNA expression increased in organoids cultured from Helicobacter-infected mouse mucosa. In this study, we elucidate the role of ISX in the development of IM and gastric carcinogenesis.
METHODS: ISX expression was assessed in Helicobacter-infected mouse and human gastric mucosa. MKN45 gastric cancer cells were co-cultured with H. pylori to determine whether Helicobacter infection induced ISX expression. We established stable MKN45 transfected cells expressing ISX (Stable-ISX MKN45) and performed a spheroid colony formation assay and a xenograft model. We performed ISX immunohistochemistry in cancer and adjacent gastric tissues.
RESULTS: ISX expression was increased in mouse and human gastric mucosa infected with Helicobacter. The presence of IM and H. pylori infection in human stomach was correlated with ISX expression. H. pylori induced ISX mRNA and protein expression. CDX1/2, cyclinD1, and MUC2 were upregulated in Stable-ISX MKN45, whereas MUC5AC was downregulated. Stable-ISX MKN45 cells formed more spheroid colonies, and had high tumorigenic ability. ISX expression in gastric cancer and adjacent mucosa were correlated.
CONCLUSIONS: ISX expression induced by H. pylori infection may lead to IM and hyperproliferation of gastric mucosa through CDX1/2 and cyclinD1 expression, contributing to gastric carcinogenesis.

Chen C, Peng H, Huang X, et al.
Genome-wide profiling of DNA methylation and gene expression in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.
Oncotarget. 2016; 7(4):4507-21 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Previous studies have suggested that DNA methylation involved in the development of ESCC. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the regulation and maintenance of the methylome as well as their relationship with ESCC remain poorly understood. Herein, we used methylated DNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (MeDIP-Seq) and RNA-Seq to investigate whole-genome DNA methylation patterns and the genome expression profiles in ESCC samples. The results of MeDIP-Seq analyses identified differentially methylated regions (DMRs) covering almost the entire genome with sufficient depth and high resolution. The gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that the DMRs related genes belonged to several different ontological domains, such as cell cycle, adhesion, proliferation and apoptosis. The RNA-Seq analysis identified a total of 6150 differentially expressed genes (3423 up-regulated and 2727 down-regulated). The significant GO terms showed that these genes belonged to several molecular functions and biological pathways. Moreover, the bisulfite-sequencing of genes MLH1, CDH5, TWIST1 and CDX1 confirmed the methylation status identified by MeDIP-Seq. And the mRNA expression levels of MLH1, TWIST1 and CDX1 were consistent with their DNA methylation profiles. The DMR region of MLH1 was found to correlate with survival. The identification of whole-genome DNA methylation patterns and gene expression profiles in ESCC provides new insight into the carcinogenesis of ESCC and represents a promising avenue through which to investigate novel therapeutic targets.

Holst S, Deuss AJ, van Pelt GW, et al.
N-glycosylation Profiling of Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines Reveals Association of Fucosylation with Differentiation and Caudal Type Homebox 1 (CDX1)/Villin mRNA Expression.
Mol Cell Proteomics. 2016; 15(1):124-40 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Various cancers such as colorectal cancer (CRC) are associated with alterations in protein glycosylation. CRC cell lines are frequently used to study these (glyco)biological changes and their mechanisms. However, differences between CRC cell lines with regard to their glycosylation have hitherto been largely neglected. Here, we comprehensively characterized the N-glycan profiles of 25 different CRC cell lines, derived from primary tumors and metastatic sites, in order to investigate their potential as glycobiological tumor model systems and to reveal glycans associated with cell line phenotypes. We applied an optimized, high-throughput membrane-based enzymatic glycan release for small sample amounts. Released glycans were derivatized to stabilize and differentiate between α2,3- and α2,6-linked N-acetylneuraminic acids, followed by N-glycosylation analysis by MALDI-TOF(/TOF)-MS. Our results showed pronounced differences between the N-glycosylation patterns of CRC cell lines. CRC cell line profiles differed from tissue-derived N-glycan profiles with regard to their high-mannose N-glycan content but showed a large overlap for complex type N-glycans, supporting their use as a glycobiological cancer model system. Importantly, we could show that the high-mannose N-glycans did not only occur as intracellular precursors but were also present at the cell surface. The obtained CRC cell line N-glycan features were not clearly correlated with mRNA expression levels of glycosyltransferases, demonstrating the usefulness of performing the structural analysis of glycans. Finally, correlation of CRC cell line glycosylation features with cancer cell markers and phenotypes revealed an association between highly fucosylated glycans and CDX1 and/or villin mRNA expression that both correlate with cell differentiation. Together, our findings provide new insights into CRC-associated glycan changes and setting the basis for more in-depth experiments on glycan function and regulation.

Karpathakis A, Dibra H, Pipinikas C, et al.
Prognostic Impact of Novel Molecular Subtypes of Small Intestinal Neuroendocrine Tumor.
Clin Cancer Res. 2016; 22(1):250-8 [PubMed] Related Publications
PURPOSE: Small intestinal neuroendocrine tumors (SINET) are the commonest malignancy of the small intestine; however, underlying pathogenic mechanisms remain poorly characterized. Whole-genome and -exome sequencing has demonstrated that SINETs are mutationally quiet, with the most frequent known mutation in the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B gene (CDKN1B) occurring in only ∼8% of tumors, suggesting that alternative mechanisms may drive tumorigenesis. The aim of this study is to perform genome-wide molecular profiling of SINETs in order to identify pathogenic drivers based on molecular profiling. This study represents the largest unbiased integrated genomic, epigenomic, and transcriptomic analysis undertaken in this tumor type.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Here, we present data from integrated molecular analysis of SINETs (n = 97), including whole-exome or targeted CDKN1B sequencing (n = 29), HumanMethylation450 BeadChip (Illumina) array profiling (n = 69), methylated DNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (n = 16), copy-number variance analysis (n = 47), and Whole-Genome DASL (Illumina) expression array profiling (n = 43).
RESULTS: Based on molecular profiling, SINETs can be classified into three groups, which demonstrate significantly different progression-free survival after resection of primary tumor (not reached at 10 years vs. 56 months vs. 21 months, P = 0.04). Epimutations were found at a recurrence rate of up to 85%, and 21 epigenetically dysregulated genes were identified, including CDX1 (86%), CELSR3 (84%), FBP1 (84%), and GIPR (74%).
CONCLUSIONS: This is the first comprehensive integrated molecular analysis of SINETs. We have demonstrated that these tumors are highly epigenetically dysregulated. Furthermore, we have identified novel molecular subtypes with significant impact on progression-free survival.

Hatano Y, Semi K, Hashimoto K, et al.
Reducing DNA methylation suppresses colon carcinogenesis by inducing tumor cell differentiation.
Carcinogenesis. 2015; 36(7):719-29 [PubMed] Related Publications
The forced reduction of global DNA methylation suppresses tumor development in several cancer models in vivo. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying these suppressive effects remain unclear. In this report, we describe our findings showing that a genome-wide reduction in the DNA methylation levels induces cellular differentiation in association with decreased cell proliferation in Apc (Min/+) mouse colon tumor cells in vivo. Colon tumor-specific DNA methylation at Cdx1 is reduced in the DNA-hypomethylated tumors accompanied by Cdx1 derepression and an increased expression of intestinal differentiation-related genes. Furthermore, a histological analysis revealed that Cdx1 derepression in the DNA-hypomethylated tumors is correlated with the differentiation of colon tumor cells. Similarly, the treatment of human colon cancer cell lines with a hypomethylating agent induces differentiation-related genes, including CDX1. We herein propose that DNA demethylation exerts a tumor suppressive effect in the colon by inducing tumor cell differentiation.

Sajjad EA, Sikora K, Paciejewski T, et al.
Intraparenchymal mesenchymal chondrosarcoma of the frontal lobe--a case report and molecular detection of specific gene fusions from archival FFPE sample.
Clin Neuropathol. 2015 Sep-Oct; 34(5):288-93 [PubMed] Related Publications
Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma is a rare tumor of cartilaginous origin characterized by its bimorphic pattern composed of highly undifferentiated small round cells separated by islands of well-differentiated hyaline cartilage. It exhibits higher malignancy and earlier occurrence in comparison to classic chondrosarcomas. Recently identified HEY1-NCOA2 and IRF2BP2-CDX1 gene fusions confirm their distinct molecular origin and pose a promising diagnostic marker. The majority of cases arise from craniofacial bones. In this study, we present a rare case of mesenchymal chondrosarcoma encompassed within the brain parenchyma of the frontal lobe without any dural or bone attachment. We demonstrate histopathological findings and confirm the HEY1-NCOA2 gene fusion in a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded archival sample using simple reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method. IRF2BP2-CDX1 gene fusion was absent in the analyzed sample. The clinical follow-up is also presented with a review of treatment modalities for this entity.

Jones MF, Hara T, Francis P, et al.
The CDX1-microRNA-215 axis regulates colorectal cancer stem cell differentiation.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015; 112(13):E1550-8 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
The transcription factor caudal-type homeobox 1 (CDX1) is a key regulator of differentiation in the normal colon and in colorectal cancer (CRC). CDX1 activates the expression of enterocyte genes, but it is not clear how the concomitant silencing of stem cell genes is achieved. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important mediators of gene repression and have been implicated in tumor suppression and carcinogenesis, but the roles of miRNAs in differentiation, particularly in CRC, remain poorly understood. Here, we identified microRNA-215 (miR-215) as a direct transcriptional target of CDX1 by using high-throughput small RNA sequencing to profile miRNA expression in two pairs of CRC cell lines: CDX1-low HCT116 and HCT116 with stable CDX1 overexpression, and CDX1-high LS174T and LS174T with stable CDX1 knockdown. Validation of candidate miRNAs identified by RNA-seq in a larger cell-line panel revealed miR-215 to be most significantly correlated with CDX1 expression. Quantitative ChIP-PCR and promoter luciferase assays confirmed that CDX1 directly activates miR-215 transcription. miR-215 expression is depleted in FACS-enriched cancer stem cells compared with unsorted samples. Overexpression of miR-215 in poorly differentiated cell lines causes a decrease in clonogenicity, whereas miR-215 knockdown increases clonogenicity and impairs differentiation in CDX1-high cell lines. We identified the genome-wide targets of miR-215 and found that miR-215 mediates the repression of cell cycle and stemness genes downstream of CDX1. In particular, the miR-215 target gene BMI1 has been shown to promote stemness and self-renewal and to vary inversely with CDX1. Our work situates miR-215 as a link between CDX1 expression and BMI1 repression that governs differentiation in CRC.

Mozaffari namin B, Daryani NE, Mirshafiey A, et al.
Effect of probiotics on the expression of Barrett's oesophagus biomarkers.
J Med Microbiol. 2015; 64(Pt 4):348-54 [PubMed] Related Publications
Barrett's oesophagus (BO) is a complicated condition at the gastroesophageal junction in which normal squamous epithelium is changed to columnar and leads to oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OA). In the past decades, the prevalence of Barrett's disease and mortality rate of adenocarcinoma has significantly increased throughout the word. Data has shown that molecular pathogenesis of disease has not been clearly identified. However, a wide-range and successful administration of probiotics in cancer and gastrointestinal diseases has lead to the investigation into the possible inhibitory role of probiotics in oesophageal cancer. This study was conducted to evaluate the inhibitory effect of probiotics on the expression of biomarkers in an in vitro model. Two different Barrett's oesophageal cell lines were selected to co-culture with B. longum and Lactobacillus acidophilus to measure expression of IL-18, TNFα, p53 (tumour suppressor gene), cyclooxygenase 2 and CDX1 (caudal type homeobox 1) genes. In addition, two different aspects of probiotic administration, therapeutic and prophylactic test were also examined. Results showed that micro-organisms could inhibit expression of biomarkers and therapeutic culture conditions were more effective than prophylactic tests. The results obtained suggest that it is possible to incorporate the administration of probiotics in BO and OA prevention.

Samadani AA, Akhavan-Niaki H
Interaction of sonic hedgehog (SHH) pathway with cancer stem cell genes in gastric cancer.
Med Oncol. 2015; 32(3):48 [PubMed] Related Publications
Gastric cancer may appear by frequent genetic or epigenetic changes in oncogenes, tumor suppressor or DNA mismatch repair genes. Molecular studies show the possibility of involvement of certain cancer pathways in gastric cancer. In this respect, DNA methylation is one of the most important epigenetic alterations in gastric cancer and identifying the signaling mechanism and also methylation of some genes that are involved in gastric cancer can help to improve treatment strategies. Relatively, there are many reported methylation alteration of genes in stem cells in all kinds of tumors with some of these genes having a key role in tumor development. Correspondingly, KLF5, CDX1/2, WNT1 and FEM1A are considerable genes in gastric cancer, although many researches and studies have illustrated that sonic hedgehog and expression of its signaling cascade proteins are related in gastric cancer. Relatively, modification in these genes causes many eclectic cancers such as rhabdomyosarcoma and diverse kinds of digestive system tumor development. Conspicuously, these master genes have a noticeable role in stem cell's growth regulation as well as other kinds of cancer such as breast cancer and leukemia. Hence, we concluded that research and studies on methylation and expression of these genes and also the investigation of molecular signaling in gastric cancer can acquire impressive conclusions in order to control and treat this common place and serious problem.

Vega ME, Giroux V, Natsuizaka M, et al.
Inhibition of Notch signaling enhances transdifferentiation of the esophageal squamous epithelium towards a Barrett's-like metaplasia via KLF4.
Cell Cycle. 2014; 13(24):3857-66 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Barrett's esophagus (BE) is defined as an incomplete intestinal metaplasia characterized generally by the presence of columnar and goblet cells in the formerly stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus. BE is known as a precursor for esophageal adenocarcinoma. Currently, the cell of origin for human BE has yet to be clearly identified. Therefore, we investigated the role of Notch signaling in the initiation of BE metaplasia. Affymetrix gene expression microarray revealed that BE samples express decreased levels of Notch receptors (NOTCH2 and NOTCH3) and one of the the ligands (JAG1). Furthermore, BE tissue microarray showed decreased expression of NOTCH1 and its downstream target HES1. Therefore, Notch signaling was inhibited in human esophageal epithelial cells by expression of dominant-negative-Mastermind-like (dnMAML), in concert with MYC and CDX1 overexpression. Cell transdifferentiation was then assessed by 3D organotypic culture and evaluation of BE-lineage specific gene expression. Notch inhibition promoted transdifferentiation of esophageal epithelial cells toward columnar-like cells as demonstrated by increased expression of columnar keratins (K8, K18, K19, K20) and glandular mucins (MUC2, MUC3B, MUC5B, MUC17) and decreased expression of squamous keratins (K5, K13, K14). In 3D culture, elongated cells were observed in the basal layer of the epithelium with Notch inhibition. Furthermore, we observed increased expression of KLF4, a potential driver of the changes observed by Notch inhibition. Interestingly, knockdown of KLF4 reversed the effects of Notch inhibition on BE-like metaplasia. Overall, Notch signaling inhibition promotes transdifferentiation of esophageal cells toward BE-like metaplasia in part via upregulation of KLF4. These results support a novel mechanism through which esophageal epithelial transdifferentiation promotes the evolution of BE.

Drew JE, Farquharson AJ, Mayer CD, et al.
Predictive gene signatures: molecular markers distinguishing colon adenomatous polyp and carcinoma.
PLoS One. 2014; 9(11):e113071 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Cancers exhibit abnormal molecular signatures associated with disease initiation and progression. Molecular signatures could improve cancer screening, detection, drug development and selection of appropriate drug therapies for individual patients. Typically only very small amounts of tissue are available from patients for analysis and biopsy samples exhibit broad heterogeneity that cannot be captured using a single marker. This report details application of an in-house custom designed GenomeLab System multiplex gene expression assay, the hCellMarkerPlex, to assess predictive gene signatures of normal, adenomatous polyp and carcinoma colon tissue using archived tissue bank material. The hCellMarkerPlex incorporates twenty-one gene markers: epithelial (EZR, KRT18, NOX1, SLC9A2), proliferation (PCNA, CCND1, MS4A12), differentiation (B4GANLT2, CDX1, CDX2), apoptotic (CASP3, NOX1, NTN1), fibroblast (FSP1, COL1A1), structural (ACTG2, CNN1, DES), gene transcription (HDAC1), stem cell (LGR5), endothelial (VWF) and mucin production (MUC2). Gene signatures distinguished normal, adenomatous polyp and carcinoma. Individual gene targets significantly contributing to molecular tissue types, classifier genes, were further characterised using real-time PCR, in-situ hybridisation and immunohistochemistry revealing aberrant epithelial expression of MS4A12, LGR5 CDX2, NOX1 and SLC9A2 prior to development of carcinoma. Identified gene signatures identify aberrant epithelial expression of genes prior to cancer development using in-house custom designed gene expression multiplex assays. This approach may be used to assist in objective classification of disease initiation, staging, progression and therapeutic responses using biopsy material.

Hryniuk A, Grainger S, Savory JG, Lohnes D
Cdx1 and Cdx2 function as tumor suppressors.
J Biol Chem. 2014; 289(48):33343-54 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
In humans, colorectal cancer is often initiated through APC loss of function, which leads to crypt hyperplasia and polyposis driven by unrestricted canonical Wnt signaling. Such polyps typically arise in the colorectal region and are at risk of transforming to invasive adenocarcinomas. Although colorectal cancer is the third most common cause of cancer-related death worldwide, the processes impacting initiation, transformation, and invasion are incompletely understood. Murine APC(Min/+) mutants are often used to model colorectal cancers; however, they develop nonmetastatic tumors confined largely to the small intestine and are thus not entirely representative of the human disease. APC(Min/+) alleles can collaborate with mutations impacting other pathways to recapitulate some aspects of human colorectal cancer. To this end, we assessed APC(Min/+)-induced polyposis following somatic loss of the homeodomain transcription factor Cdx2, alone or with a Cdx1 null allele, in the adult gastrointestinal tract. APC(Min/+)-Cdx2 mutants recapitulated several aspects of human colorectal cancer, including an invasive phenotype. Notably, the concomitant loss of Cdx1 led to a significant increase in the incidence of tumors in the distal colon, relative to APC(Min/+)-Cdx2 offspring, demonstrating a previously unrecognized role for this transcription factor in colorectal tumorigenesis. These findings underscore previously unrecognized roles for Cdx members in intestinal tumorigenesis.

Panagopoulos I, Gorunova L, Bjerkehagen B, et al.
Chromosome aberrations and HEY1-NCOA2 fusion gene in a mesenchymal chondrosarcoma.
Oncol Rep. 2014; 32(1):40-4 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Mesenchymal chondrosarcomas are fast-growing tumors that account for 2-10% of primary chondrosarcomas. Cytogenetic information is restricted to 12 cases that did not show a specific aberration pattern. Recently, two fusion genes were described in mesenchymal chondrosarcomas: a recurrent HEY1-NCOA2 found in tumors that had not been cytogenetically characterized and an IRF2BP2-CDX1 found in a tumor carrying a t(1;5)(q42;q32) translocation as the sole chromosomal abnormality. Here, we present the cytogenetic and molecular genetic analysis of a mesenchymal chondrosarcoma in which the patient had two histologically indistinguishable tumor lesions, one in the neck and one in the thigh. An abnormal clone with the G-banding karyotype 46,XX,add(6)(q23),add(8)(p23),del(10)(p11),+12,-15[6] was found in the neck tumor whereas a normal karyotype, 46,XX, was found in the tumor of the thigh. RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing showed that exon 4 of HEY1 was fused to exon 13 of NCOA2 in the sample from the thigh lesion; we did not have spare material to perform a similar analysis of the neck tumor. Examining the published karyotypes we observed numerical or structural aberrations of chromosome 8 in the majority of the karyotyped mesenchymal chondrosarcomas. Chromosome 8 was also structurally affected in the present study. The pathogenetic mechanisms behind this nonrandom involvement are unknown, but the presence on 8q of two genes, HEY1 and NCOA2, now known to be involved in mesenchymal chondrosarcoma tumorigenesis is, of course, suggestive.

Green NH, Nicholls Z, Heath PR, et al.
Pulsatile exposure to simulated reflux leads to changes in gene expression in a 3D model of oesophageal mucosa.
Int J Exp Pathol. 2014; 95(3):216-28 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Oesophageal exposure to duodenogastroesophageal refluxate is implicated in the development of Barrett's metaplasia (BM), with increased risk of progression to oesophageal adenocarcinoma. The literature proposes that reflux exposure activates NF-κB, driving the aberrant expression of intestine-specific caudal-related homeobox (CDX) genes. However, early events in the pathogenesis of BM from normal epithelium are poorly understood. To investigate this, our study subjected a 3D model of the normal human oesophageal mucosa to repeated, pulsatile exposure to specific bile components and examined changes in gene expression. Initial 2D experiments with a range of bile salts observed that taurochenodeoxycholate (TCDC) impacted upon NF-κB activation without causing cell death. Informed by this, the 3D oesophageal model was repeatedly exposed to TCDC in the presence and absence of acid, and the epithelial cells underwent gene expression profiling. We identified ~300 differentially expressed genes following each treatment, with a large and significant overlap between treatments. Enrichment analysis (Broad GSEA, DAVID and Metacore™; GeneGo Inc) identified multiple gene sets related to cell signalling, inflammation, proliferation, differentiation and cell adhesion. Specifically NF-κB activation, Wnt signalling, cell adhesion and targets for the transcription factors PTF1A and HNF4α were highlighted. Our data suggest that HNF4α isoform switching may be an early event in Barrett's pathogenesis. CDX1/2 targets were, however, not enriched, suggesting that although CDX1/2 activation reportedly plays a role in BM development, it may not be an initial event. Our findings highlight new areas for investigation in the earliest stages of BM pathogenesis of oesophageal diseases and new potential therapeutic targets.

Ku HJ, Kim HY, Kim HH, et al.
Bile acid increases expression of the histamine-producing enzyme, histidine decarboxylase, in gastric cells.
World J Gastroenterol. 2014; 20(1):175-82 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
AIM: To investigate the effect of bile acid on the expression of histidine decarboxylase (HDC), which is a major enzyme involved in histamine production, and gene expression of gastric transcription factors upon cooperative activation.
METHODS: HDC expression was examined by immunohistochemistry, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, and promoter assay in human gastric precancerous tissues, normal stomach tissue, and gastric cancer cell lines. The relationship between gastric precancerous state and HDC expression induced by bile acid was determined. The association between the expression of HDC and various specific transcription factors in gastric cells was also evaluated. MKN45 and AGS human gastric carcinoma cell lines were transfected with farnesoid X receptor (FXR), small heterodimer partner (SHP), and caudal-type homeodomain transcription factor (CDX)1 expression plasmids. The effects of various transcription factors on HDC expression were monitored by luciferase-reporter promoter assay.
RESULTS: Histamine production and secretion in the stomach play critical roles in gastric acid secretion and in the pathogenesis of gastric diseases. Here, we show that bile acid increased the expression of HDC, which is a rate-limiting enzyme of the histamine production pathway. FXR was found to be a primary regulatory transcription factor for bile acid-induced HDC expression. In addition, the transcription factors CDX1 and SHP synergistically enhanced bile acid-induced elevation of HDC gene expression. We confirmed similar expression patterns for HDC, CDX1, and SHP in patient tissues.
CONCLUSION: HDC production in the stomach is associated with bile acid exposure and its related transcriptional regulation network of FXR, SHP, and CDX1.

Akhavan-Niaki H, Samadani AA
Molecular insight in gastric cancer induction: an overview of cancer stemness genes.
Cell Biochem Biophys. 2014; 68(3):463-73 [PubMed] Related Publications
Gastric cancer is one of the most outgoing human cancers in the world. Two main functional types were described: Intestinal adenocarcinoma and diffuse one. The most important purpose of this review is to analyze and investigate the main genetic factors involved in tumorogenesis of stomach and the molecular mechanism of their expression regulation alongside with the importance of cancer stem cells and their relationship with gastric cancer. It is evident that proper diagnosis of molecular case of cancer may lead to absolute treatment and at least reduction in the disease severity. However, stemness factors such as Sox2, Oct3/4, and Nanog were related with induced pluripotent stem cells, proposing a correlation between these stemness factors and cancer stem cells. Moreover, aberrant induction by Helicobacter pylori of the intestinal-specific homeobox transcription factors, CDX1 and CDX2, also plays an important role in this modification. There are some genes which are directly activated by CDX1 in gastric cancer and distinguished stemness-related reprogramming factors like SALL4 and KLF5. Correspondingly, we also aimed to present the main important epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation, histone modification, and chromatin modeling of stemness genes in disease development. Remarkably, a better understanding of molecular bases of cancer may lead to novel diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive approaches by some genetic and epigenetic changes such as gene amplifications, gene silencing by DNA methylation, losses of imprinting, LOH, and mutations. Consequently, genome-wide searches of gene expression are widely important for surveying the proper mechanisms of cancer emergence and development. Conspicuously, this review explains an outline of the molecular mechanism and new approaches in gastric cancer.

Ashley N, Yeung TM, Bodmer WF
Stem cell differentiation and lumen formation in colorectal cancer cell lines and primary tumors.
Cancer Res. 2013; 73(18):5798-809 [PubMed] Related Publications
Single cancer stem-like cells (CSC) from colorectal cancers can be functionally identified by their ability to form large lumen-containing colonies in three-dimensional Matrigel cultures. These colonies contain the three types of differentiated colorectal epithelial cells, and single cells obtained from them can reproduce themselves and form tumors efficiently in immunodeficient mice. In this study, we show how hypoxia affects these CSC-derived lumens to control differentiation of stem-like cells and enterocytes via the homeobox gene CDX1. Lumens were identified by F-actin staining and they expressed many characteristics associated with normal differentiated intestinal epithelium, including brush border enzymes, polarization, and tight junctions. RNA interference-mediated silencing of CDX1 reduced lumen formation. Inhibitory effects of hypoxia on lumen formation and stem cell differentiation, including suppression of CDX1 expression, could be mimicked by inhibiting prolyl-hydroxylases that activate HIF1, suggesting that HIF1 is a critical mediator of the effects of hypoxia in this setting. Cell line-derived lumens were phenotypically indistinguishable from colorectal tumor glandular structures used by pathologists to grade tumor differentiation. Parallel results to those obtained with established cell lines were seen with primary cultures from fresh tumors. This in vitro approach to functional characterization of CSCs and their differentiation offers a valid model to study colorectal tumor differentiation and differentiation of colorectal CSCs, with additional uses to enable high-throughput screening for novel anticancer compounds.

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